A Brief History of Hallingdal

Contribuição de

LaVona Lewis

by Edna Rude

Since long before the birth of Christ various peoples had wandered in and out of Hallingdal, leaving behind a few crude implements which show the stages of developing civilizations. However, they left no "seed"-they were NOT the ancestors of present generations. According to ancient sages, Hallingdal became a kingdom about year 800 and the first king was named "Hadding." He lived at Hoff in upper Al, and a son succeeded him as king, living at Garnos in Nes. The name Haddingdal was used for a long period before it became "Hallingdal." Hadding was son of King Raum of Telemark, and a brother of King Ring of Ringerike. In 870, Hallingdal accepted Harald Fairhair as king, along with all of Norway. So our history begins with a civilization of settled people, from about 800 - 1000 A.D. known as the Viking Age.

As the Vikings pirated and plundered the coasts of Europe, they also planted colonies. Nobody was safe from their terrible raids. (The name Vik means bay or inlet and the men who swarmed out of these bays in the far north-including Swedes and Danes-were since known as Vikings.) A king in France "invited" a group of Vikings to settle on their fair shores and gave them a stretch of land in return for peace and a guarantee that they (Vikings) would protect France from other bands of Vikings! That area of France is called Normandy, after "Norsemen" and it has been said in recent times that Normandy is the only place in the world where French is spoken with a Norwegian accent!

Meanwhile, Norway herself must have been teeming with restless young men. Although there were great numbers of them who "went to sea," especially of those who lived on the west coast. But there were certainly those who stayed on land going on foot over the mountains to explore, to settle and to farm, especially where iron ore was available and plentiful. It was the discovery of iron in Hallingdal that brought people to settle there, differing from the wandering bands of hunters who had roamed through the valley earlier. Production of good iron made possible new weapons, farm tools and trade with other areas. The people of Hallingdal were on the way to progress! Over the mountains and down to the Sognefjord, their pack horses laden with iron wedges. For at least 1000 years they traded the iron for new tools, imported ornaments, silks and whatever else may have come in by longship from distant lands. The Hallings then became suppliers of iron to the Vikings who hammered it into weapons and tools for their own needs. The Hallings returning to their own valley had secured at least two other products in trade also salt and fish, not "foreign" trade items but from the wealth of Norway's own waters.

But now that these were a settled people in Hallingdal, just where had they come from, who were they, what was their background? This writer does not at present have access to much information on the

subject. Or perhaps there is no more such information available. Would it not have been put into the common history books of Norway?

This much we do know: the very earliest settlers around Al and Hol had come over the mountains

from Sognefjord and Hardangeitord areas. They had followed ancient trails made by the earlier migrant hunters. Gol and Hemsedal were largely occupied by those coming through Valdres and from the east (across Sweden.) It is not known if they had ever been settled in Sweden or were just migrating through. Then we have Nes and Fla which were taken over by people coming through Denmark and Estonia, taking the water route by Drammen and up the Hallingdal river. All the above mentioned people spoke a similar Germanic (teutonic) language. They either lived peaceably next to each other or must have fought to determine boundaries and supremacy, because they stayed. Yet, to this day they admit a difference in speech, customs, actions and appearance. One historian from Hallingdal has expressed it this way: "-there is a distinct line of difference between Nes and Gol."

We find in Hallingdal a "nation of farmers" who raised enough cattle, sheep, goats and horses for their own existence. Small patches of soil were spaded up and planted into "grain" but most of the ground was left as it had lain for eons. It took most of the summer to gather hay for winter use. A scythe or small, curved hand sickle were used to cut the tufts of wild grass found in clearings between the trees. With a special knife, the twigs were cut from birch and aspen tees while the leaves were yet tender. These were carefully brought home to be fed to the sheep and goats.

The custom of going to "seter" with the cattle each summer was developed long before A.D. 1000. This was mostly "women's work" but the men helped sometimes and young boys were always the herders. In June, when the grass was green up on the higher levels, it was time to turn the herds loose and herd them up to the mountain farm (seter) which was actually a part or extension, of the farms in the valley. The very finest butter and cheese were made from the milk up there as the grass was especially sweet and nourishing. Some years it was difficult to get the animals up the mountain because they were so weakened from the starvation diet of late winter that they needed to be actually carried out of the dark stable, to eat grass around the stable and gain the strength to walk up to the seter. This was a common practice for many centuries when they tried to keep too many animals on too little food through the winter. It was considered a great pleasure to go up to the summer farm-like a grand vacation, where the

air was so light and sun shone more hours in the day than down between the mountain walls of the valley farms. Yet, life was not easy up there-buildings were but primitive shelters and the hard work

required strong bodies and much determination.

From an old history book we find this description of life on a valley farm, whether in Hallingdal or else- where in early Norway. Each "settlement"or community consisted mainly of one "big" farm handed

down through generations of one family since the beginning. The location would be by a river, fjord,

or a tarn (lake.) The owner was called "odelsbonde" or “storbonde” meaning big landowner. Because of his wealth he was automatically the leader in the community. Wealth was synonymous with wisdom! He kept armed body-guards, many hired workers plus some slaves. Near the buildings were pastures, fields and a small orchard. There was a garden containing cabbages, onions and plants used for dyes-blue, golds, etc. The whole farm was enclosed in a good fence. There were many buildings on the main farm, all built of logs so large it took just three stacked on top of each other for each wall. As there was no foundation the first log was laid directly on the ground, and each log was "slabbed" on two sides so walls were flat down inside and outside. The roofs were laid with planks, covered by birch bark (which never rots) and then sod on top of this. If the grass grew too long on the roof it was the privilege of one of the goats to be placed up there to nibble it down. Chimneys were unknown until the 18th or 19th century. The main house was long and narrow with packed earth floor that had been excavated so it was lower than ground level-that is, people would step down into the house. A ledge of earth was left around

the walls and this was covered with planks so there were benches for seating many people all around. Two or three stone hearths were lined up along the middle of the room. A hole in the roof served to relieve the room of some of the smoke. The hole served as a window for light during the day (there were no other windows) and there was a sort of trap door attached to a long pole so the opening could be closed against weather and darkness. Heavy crossbeams held the building together. One end of the house was divided into two small rooms, an entry and a storage room for food supplies (forerunner of the kitchen) and in the entrance was a ladder to the sleeping loft above the storage room. There were, of course, many other buildings-separate stables for cows, sheep and goats, a "stabbur" (food and grain storage) with sleeping loft above. Hired girls slept there. Other help usually slept in the horse stable. There was also a blacksmith "shop", a boat shed and a type of sauna used every Saturday by the men. This practice continued until about A.D. 1800.

Social life for the big landowner and his family could be some rather grand affairs lasting several days and sometimes including hundreds of guests. The preparations for such an affair kept the servants busy for a long time and the housewife "managed" the whole thing. A thorough house cleaning was the beginning of it and then walls were decorated with hand-woven tapestries depicting gods, heroes, and great events. Over these tapestries were hung well-polished weapons and shields, floors spread with fresh straw and tables brought in. Guests arrived toward evening, riding their horses and dressed in their finest. The men were followed by bodyguards and servants and often accompanied by wives and children. The host went out to meet them and his servants took charge of their horses and weapons until it was time to leave. The host then invited them in. He took his place on the "high seat” - a large heavily carved chair marked by two tall, carved pillars standing guard at his right and left. Male guests were seated on the long-wall benches on either side of him and directly opposite, facing him. Women were seated at the end walls. First the hostess carried forth a bowl of water from one guest to the other giving each a turn at washing hands, then the host would stand and bid welcome to all announce that it was time to eat. Many women were kept busy with the serving of food but only one "poured." Standing at a table near the supply room she poured the ale into drinking horns (cow horns, hollowed out) and passed them to the guests. When the meal was finished the women cleared tables and disappeared. But the men continued with their drinking and special program late into the night. Some told stories of long ago events (sagas), "skalds" chanted lengthy verses of heroism, and there was music skillfully played on harps. When they were well "into their cups" they argued and fought, but as their weapons had been safely stowed away upon arrival they had to be content with throwing meat bones and drinking horns at one another. Finally, they either stumbled out to find sleeping quarters or sank onto the straw near the dying fires. The following day, after a ten o'clock meal, they walked over to the athletic field-a flat meadow where all kinds of games and contests were held-archery, swimming, high jumps, jumping over rivers, wrestling and races. Then there were cock fights and horse fights that did not end until one animal lay dead at their feet. If this "social affair" were held in winter there would be skiing and skating. When the guest of honor (a chief) made ready to leave with all his following, the host gave him an expensive gift such as a gold ring, a sword or a silk cape.

But all was not fun and games. The landowner was also "chief" over all the “little people" on his land. Spread out through the woods and clearings and fields were little places he had allowed his men to cultivate for themselves thus they felt they were “free" people even though they were poor peasants,

more or less "owned" by the big farmer. Even the landowner was not really basking in riches. As mentioned before, the six warmer months of the year were spent in efforts to prepare enough food for the six colder months. Crude farming tools and perhaps even cruder knowledge, steep, stony ground, too much rain or too little, early frosts, and various insect pestilences made life extremely hard for the people who had chosen to live in Hallingdal. Families were large and angry gods required much in the way of sacrifices (even humans were sacrificed) yet there was no guarantee of bountiful harvests. When not actually occupied with the cutting and gathering of hay, upon which all life depended, there were numerous other jobs to be done. The lower class (those who were "under" the big farmer) made their own tools, weapons, and implements. All spinning, weaving, sewing and shoemaking were done at home in the winter months. (This was also true of the upper class, except for a few trade items they could secure.) Hunting and fishing were not a sport or pastime, but a serious necessity for food supply and for animal skins to be used as clothing and bedding.

Besides the regular work of planting and gathering, in Hallingdal as well as some other areas of Norway, there was the annual "harvest" of iron ore from the mountain bogs. It was tedious work, to say the least. In early spring the men would go up to the high-country marshes and spade up the soggy and soddy blobs containing a high percentage of good quality iron ore. These were piled into sizeable heaps and left to ooze and dry as much as possible. Then in the fall they again went up there and cooked out the iron in crude blast furnaces. (These were simply large holes dug in the ground.) Into these "furnaces" were placed layers of charcoal (also laboriously prepared by the men) and ore, more charcoal and ore until the hole was heaped full. The charcoal burned to a very hot fire, melting and separating the slag from the good iron. The iron was poured on the ground and allowed to cool, then brought down to the farm on pack horses later to be reheated and made into tools and weapons. This industry was carried on for many centuries in Hallingdal, and slag heaps can still be found up on the mountain marshes. The making of charcoal for the iron industry has been blamed for depleting of forests that once grew much higher on the mountains than they do now. Yet, it was the production of iron that made development and expansion possible. (The current crest of Hol Kommune depicts three anvils and is a nod at the early historical importance of iron in Hallingdal.) We have already seen a glimpse of one side of "social life" especially regarding a big farmer and the little people under his rule. There were, however, other gatherings which could be classified as (1) Judicial and (2) Religious.

(1) Judicial

Long before the year 1000 AD, Norway had a well organized system of determining rights and justice.

Once a year the "Ting" would assemble with delegates of representatives from each village. These brought the wishes and complaints of people in their respective communities. There were many arguments to be settled such as: boundary lines between forests or farms or seters; someone taking wood from his neighbor's forest; personal fights to be settled; the knifings, hairpullings, and beatings so common everywhere to lower socio-economic people. All these cases were aired, and "tried" by the "judge" who was a sort chief over the entire district, and may also have been the same "big farmer" described earlier who has great influence over the people.

A "chief" was always a man whose wealth was synonymous with power. The masses of peasants looked up with awe to man who owned land and large buildings. Naturally, a man who had the wisdom to become wealthy was also respected for his speech and actions and decisions in all matters, so he became the leader for those peasants around him. In Viking times, there was a chief of such magnitude that he ruled over all of Hallingdal. So great was he in wealth and wisdom that he outfitted an entire colony-ships, people, cattle, and supplies, and sent them to colonize in Iceland. Preparations must have been tremendous. There was all that needed to be done in making and preparing foods, clothing, and equipment for a long sea voyage and also for beginning life in a strange new land. This was all done, of course, in and around the farm area where the chief lived, somewhere in Hallingdal.

While this task was being accomplished with extreme difficulty because of its unbelieveable magnitude

(remember this was done more than 1000 years ago) a group of men had been sent ahead to Laerdal to build ships-seaworthy ships. Then when all was in readiness on both sides of the mountain range there was the impressive caravan, from Gol to Laerdal, of people, animals, loaded carts all plodding heavily toward the unknown-finally the fleet of new, sleek ships sailing for the first and last time down the Sognefjord toward the open seas and Iceland.

History says "Tore" was named leader of this expedition and became "one of the most excellent pioneers in Iceland." Records in Iceland state it this way: "Grim from Hallingdal went to Iceland with his wife Bergdis and son Tore. It was this Tore who became great chief and pioneer settler. Many excellent men of Iceland are descended from him."

(2) Religious

There was a religious leader, not necessarily over a large district but rather for each small community or village. Once or three times a year (depending on which of the gods were to be invoked, and that changed from one era to another) a great celebration was held-various sports, contests, races, dances, drinking and religious observances. The Priest has the honor of offering sacrifice to the gods, splashing

blood of sheep, goats, or oxen on the carved wooden faces of the "gods." Slaves who helped with the

actual cleaning (washing the wooden objects in the “holy pond" nearby) were promptly drowned in the pond when the work was done. Sometimes a fine young man or woman was sacrificed to appease the angry gods. There was great spiritual darkness, and the superstitions that prevailed then were handed down through generations far into the Christian era and can perhaps be found in some forms yet

today.

Anno 1000-1350

To the people living in Hallingdal in those times there was little noticeable change in their daily struggle for existence. They continued with the farming practices as their ancestors had done, since Viking times or before. There were no specialists, that is, trained workers in various trades such as shoe-makers, tailors, smiths, builders, etc. The farmer and his family made and built and produced every-thing that was needed. Only in cities could be found such men of learning who practiced a trade. There were no cities in Hallingdal. Houses, too were much the same as before-small log cabins with two or three rooms and a sleeping loft over half of the cabin. Still no windows in the homes, but something had been added-a small "peephole"" from which visitors could be seen approaching, be they friend or foe. This little opening was simply stuffed with a convenient material when cold weather came along. A bed of flat stones in mid-room served as a fireplace and a hole in the roof drew out some of the smoke. Benches along the walls served as beds, and families were large, crowding the little dwellings. Floors were of packed earth or clay mixed with animal hair, and there was still the bank of sod around the walls under the benches, as the floors were one step below ground level or then layers of sod had been placed under the benches to keep the floors draft free. This type of building has been in use on some seters, at least, until 1900. They were practical and inexpensive.

Hallingdal remained a peaceful valley, remote from the activities and progress of coastal regions, and from the rumblings of Europe and the rest of the world, except for the trickle of trade going over the mountains to and from Laerdal, the nearest accessible seaport. It seems to be some time during these centuries that the Hallings began building their storehouses called "stabbur." These were the unique two-story log structures, with the upper story somewhat wider than the lower. The first floor was for food storage, boxes and barrels of grain and meal, chests of flatbread and lefse, dried mutton and pork hung from the ceiling. The upper story was for clothing storage as well as sleeping room for hired girls and sometimes guests. A few of these first buildings are still in use after 600 years! The same type of building is found on most farms in Hallingdal now. They have been built by all succeeding generations and even today a few new ones can be found, proving how practical they are.

The high rate of development and growth continued from Viking times into the 1300s. Population increased and new farms were cleared and built. Original farms were often divided into smaller parcels for land and houses for the increasing families. Sons moved out of the “home place" and built little places for their families on a portion of their fathers' farm, or they cleared new land higher and higher up the mountain sides. There is still evidence of farm buildings up on the mountains since those years of expansion after AD 1000 which are now too high and unproductive for farming in the present climate but have been used only as summer pasture and even that practice is being discontinued.

The one great event that marked a change of lasting dimensions was the arrival of “Christianity." The exact date is not known, but one writer of sagas expressed it this way: "A result of Holy Olav's work was that no valley in Norway was unchristianized”. This would have to include Hallingdal. Neither is it known if the "Holy" King Olav ever entered Hallingdal but he WAS in Valdres (next valley to the north) in 1023 and Christianized the people there, built churches and installed priests. It is easy to believe he may have followed the old migration route into Hallingdal as there was much trade, communication, intermarriage, etc. between these two valleys.

We find no records explaining HOW Christianity was presented to the Hallings, but we can assume it resembled that of other communities, where people were ordered at sword point, to believe in the teachings of the "white Christ" or lose their heads. In some areas the people gathered in great numbers at the pagan worship grounds to hear what the followers of holy King had to offer. Their chief would ask the people to decide, or he might give his own opinion, either positive or negative, and his people would agree with him. Those who had come to “Christianize" them were often in danger of losing their own lives and fled to safer places. The "cause" would then be postponed until the next year's meeting of the Ting or perhaps indefinitely. Christianity was NOT accepted very quickly.

It was a totally new concept for the Hallings to hear about sin and that all people were sinners. The old Hallings were proud and self-confident and found it difficult to understand such things. Strength and determination had always been their “set of morals." Their old gods were considered strong and terrible

but were never either good or bad, had nothing to do with morals and did not make moral demands on the people. Christianity was so different. Religion and morals were connected and there was to be humility and repentance. One writer says "It certainly must have been hard for the Hallings to understand that, and even more difficult to cultivate a concept of morals!” "The customs and ceremonies that went with the worship of the new, great God. The church rituals and instruction, at least, made an impression on the Golings, and such a radical change from former ways that it affected their life and thinking even though gradually," says another writer.

The Hallings had come under a higher power, a power so great that it had laws and rules for human life from cradle to grave. This "new God" functioned through the Roman Catholic Church, and the first known church structures were the well-known stave churches, one in each community, with its own cemetery of hallowed ground. This was quite different from the old custom of burial on the farms, either in a large mound accompanied by slaves, jewelry, and implements needed in the next life, or else dumped in a ravine and covered with rocks, depending on the status and value of the deceased.

Inside the churches were dark, but pleasant, the only light coming from candles on the altar. Painted statues with kind faces looked down at the congregation. Around the walls were benches for the old and crippled, and the able-bodied were obliged to stand through the ceremonies. Priests in white robes read softly from their Latin books. There was no stench of dried blood encrusting walls and floor, no grotesque figures with bulging eyes and crude carved tongues hanging out, even more eerie because of the flickering light from birchboard torches in the sacrificial temples of former days. "But it is clear that the church had great and lasting effect on the people even though it was not as suitable to Norwegian (especially Hailing) character as to the people in the south of Europe,” explains one historian.

Fortunately, not all the stave churches were destroyed when more modern ones were built in the

19th century. Some have not only been preserved but have been in continual use since they were

built around the year 1170. The Roman candles and statues were removed in mid-1500s and

replaced by Lutheran furnishings. Those who wish to study further about the stave churches may be interested to know there is considerable variety in the architectural style of these structures from upper to lower parts of Hallingdal. It is believed this is further proof of early migrations from 3 different directions into Hallingdal, or at least, the builders were strongly influenced by what they had seen in other valleys. Al and Torpo churches were of the same style as those in Sogn, (northwest), Gol and Hemsedal churches were of the Valdres style (northeast) while Nes and Fla had the Numedal style building (southeast.) This corresponds perfectly with the three migration routes.

Progress has come slowly and steadily in Hallingdal. The whole of Norway had developed into a

powerful nation, climate was good, food crops had made possible much material gain and farm lands were all being used to the best of existing knowledge. Population was at an all-time high. Then came the year 1349. Norwegian history calls it the year of the Black Death, also known as the Black Plague. This disease had its beginning in Asia but no records were kept of the death toll there. Europe counted

about 25,000,000 dead, one-fourth of the entire European population. People died in great masses and much fear and dread took hold of all countries. Total ignorance regarding sanitation certainly helped to promote the epidemic.

Late summer of 1349 a ship arrived from England to unload its freight in the harbor of Bergen, Norway. Someof its crew had died on the way and the rest died while the ship lay at anchor in Bergen. The ship was allowed to sink right there in the harbor with its dead crew, but not before the sickness had been spread in the town. It is recorded that 80 bodies were carried to one church cemetery in one day, in Bergen, including 14 priests. By fall the Plague had spread over most of Norway and into Hallingdal where it claimed at least half the population. Gol was down to one-fourth its former inhabitants. It was a horrible disease, affecting the lungs so there was much spitting of blood and sharp, stabbing pains. Boils broke out on the neck, armpits, etc and turned a gangrenous black color, thereby the name Black Death. Death came mercifully in one or two days. Nearly all priests died because they tried to comfort and help the sick. There were no doctors, nor medicine nor isolation nor sanitation. By early 1350 the plague had finished its harvest in Norway. In July 1351 King Magnus sent letters to be read in all churches announcing to the people that the dread disease had gone out of their land and they need fear it no more. They were also advised to live in agreement and help each other so the country could be reconstructed, with God's help.

But misfortune seldom travels alone. In 1359-60 a smallpox epidemic destroyed hundreds of children, 1371 saw another deadly epidemic (name unknown) and in 1391-92 another great “epidemic with many deaths" is recorded. Years of bad climate followed, lower temperatures made farming even more difficult and almost fruitless. The population was so decimated and morale was so low after 40 years of misfortune that progress was at a standstill. It took a long time to rebuild what had been lost. The few remaining people could not possibly do all the work. Many of the farms had been owned by the king, the church or by noblemen but since 1349 there were no tenants left to work these lands, so their absentee landowners lost their income, the farms lay idle with weeds and woods growing up and buildings falling down.

Church buildings also fell into disrepair when there was no longer an income from church farms for their upkeep. Many churches were closed for lack of congregations. Gol church was degraded to "annex" under Nes! The people generally endured their misfortunes as a judgement from God, consequently making attempts at appeasement by pilgrimages, penance, and payments for their souls. Others gave up and took to drink and immorality, trying to escape. A heavy cloud

of spiritual darkness settled like fog over all Hallingdal.

However, life goes on and new generations began to see some light through the fog. Farmlands

were once again being cleared by the gradually increasing population, although this writer has not found, so far anyway, a recorded history of this reconstruction period. The only available accounts at

time are to be found bit by bit in the LOCAL community books that have found their way from Hallingdal

into the middle or rural America. Books about Al, Hol, Gol, Hemsedal, Nes and Fla contain some real

surprises for Hailing descendants! Without going into any detail let us keep in mind that after about 500 years of Catholicism, the people of Norway got orders from the King of Denmark for Norway to shift over to the Lutheran beliefs in 1537. Also at this time a new period of reconstruction began. What had for 200 years been only a small, slow process of spreading out of those families that survived the Plague now became a new influx ofimmigrants from other countries of northern Europe. These became "pioneers" who cleared land, cut down trees and rebuilt the farms once more. As we put together pieces of this puzzle we find a fascinating picture taking shape. In a few words: WE ARE NOT AS "PURE NORWEGIANS" AS WE HAD THOUGHT! Many of us have Scottish or Swedish (Goth) or Danish, Dutch or Estonian or some other blood in our veins! Especially the Scots came into Norway, for at least two reasons: (1) political and religious persecutions in Scotland and (2) much land was available for settling in Norway since the Plague.

To quote a few examples: Sander Sanderson came over from Scotland toward the end of the

1500s and many more Scots came especially to Norway's west coast at that time. But Sanderson

came to the Oslo area, married a girl in Sigdal and came to Gol in 1593. He was a tailor and his

customers were very pleased with his sewing and embroidery of men's clothing. (This is the first

we hear of tradesmen in Hallingdal.) He moved to Al in 1600 and as he was also able to read and

write well he served as an official who wrote the important documents for many of the local

people.

In the district of Al is a prominent name Skattebol, one explanation of which is the following: "This is an old farm, and according to sagas it was taken over by a Scotsman in 1360, as the land had laid vacant since the Plague ten years earlier. All the people had died on many of the farms and so it was with this one. Many generations of highly respected people have descended from this Scot and his family."

"T.G. Myhre born 1805, son of Gaute Myhre, was from an ancient west coast family who moved to Hol around 1360, was of Viking descent." (The name Gaute is dialect for "Goth" and has probably been handed down through generations.) Another with that name was Gaute Olson Bortnes (from Nes?) who married Barbro Leksvoll of Al. He was a wealthy landowner in the 1600s. In Nes, Hallingdal is the Devegge farm, original Hailing pronunciation "Donvegge"and believed to have received that name from Dunvegan Castle on the isle of Skye, Scotland. Original recorded owners of this farm were Count Clemmet (Klemmet) and Countess Belju who had come from Scotland in the 1400s. Records in Scotland show that because of a murder there was feuding between clan McLeod and clan Argyll. So when a certain girl of clan McLeod of Dunvegan planned to marry an Argyll they had to flee from Scotland to marry. It is believed they came to Hallingdal. There is a St. Clemmet church on one of the Scottish islands and it was the church of the McLeods. "Count Clemmet" would easily have taken that name to preserve some degree of anonymity. And in 1967 Dame Flora McLeod of Dunvegan Castle visited her "relatives" (that’s what she happily called them) in Hallingdal. She believed the above story to be absolutely true.* (Rather exciting for yours truly to discover the name Devegge in her own ancestry as of six generations ago!) Also in the background of this writer is another Scotsman who came to Norway in 1612 with the men who had been recruited to help Sweden win her current war with Germany. These men had come by boat from Scotland, landed on the coast of Norway at Romsdal with orders to plunder and destroy whatever lay in their path over the mid-section of Norway. They were ambushed in Gudbrandsdal by farmers who dumped logs and boulders on them from an overhanging cliff. Those who were not killed were taken prisoner to be killed later, but some escaped, including one named Morton. He found his way south into Hallingdal, married a girl from Loviken and became founder of the Sevre family line near Nes, and also the families of Stoen, Gjeitrygg, etc. My grandfather was born Gjeitrygg!

These are only a few examples of outsiders moving into Hallingdal during the resettlement periods.

We find no evidence of the newcomers pushing the local inhabitants off their land. Peaceful

assimilation must have taken place, welding the new with the old into organized communities,

determined to live together in harmony. This produced a people so fiercely independent that perhaps

nowhere in the world is there a community quite like it. Farms were small and so close together in most places that each family could see what his neighbor was doing. Whether out of deep respect for each other or total mistrust we will never know, but each learned to go about his own business and leave the neighbors to do likewise. It is still that way today.

THE FARM-NAMING SYSTEM

It would not be fair to anyone interested enough to read this far, were we to omit some information

regarding the naming system in Hallingdal and elsewhere in Norway. Names of farms and people were never chosen at random. There were traditions to follow, traditions so unbreakable that they may as well have been part of the Ten Commandments: "Thou shalt name thy first son after his father's father, and thy second son after his mother's father, etc." Or if a man died and his widow remarried and had children in her second marriage, 'Thou shalt name that first child after thy first husband." Breaking those traditions was unthinkable.

*It should be noted that primary documentation of this story has not yet been discovered.

As in other parts of Europe so it was in Norway that the peasants did not "own" their family name but were merely permitted to use the name of the farm on which they lived. Every "real" farm had its name, or rather a description, from its origin (many of them in Viking times) and still continuing today, unchanged. Quoting from one record, "Just how far back can we really trace?" To answer that we must turn to names, for they can be a fountain of information, whether it be names of places, rivers, lakes, mountains, farms, neighborhoods or whole villages. These names often go back to pre-historic times! There farm names tell a good story of earliest settling because there seems to be several layers of them, one after another, so that in one period a certain type of name was used and in later periods another type of name. In this way it is possible to set a "timetable" or approximate age of specific farms and places. True, a farm may have changed name but only rarely, and then there would be records to that effect. Farms named with a single word from nature are the very oldest, such as As, Berg, Nes, Strand, etc. (They may have existed long before the birth of Christ, when farming first began in Norway.) These simple names would have come quite naturally to a farm, its description or location dictating the name. (As—up on the shoulder of the mountain, Berg—a specific mountain, not a whole mountain range; Nes—a point of land jutting into a river or fjord; Strand—along the shore of some water, etc.) In more modern As ; a similar type of naming was used but attached to the article "the", such as Asen—The As; Bakken—The Hill; Skogen—The Woods, etc.

Whoever is acquainted in Hallingdal can easily find the very oldest farms with the single names from nature, and they are always the most central farms with the best soil and other conditions for farming. Then about the time of Vikings and also earlier there was a new settling near the oldest farms. These new ones used the suffixes "-stad," "-land," or "-set" preferably with the first name of original owner as prefix. When those suffix names were no longer the popular system, the next pioneers used the simple "-rud" as suffix to men's Christian names. This would mean it was in the 1000-1350 era and Christianity had been adopted. There are more than 3000 "-rud" names in all Norway, mostly in the eastern part which includes Hallingdal. These names are found on official records as early as 1300-1500. In the early middle ages we find much expansion, because "rud" farms lie like a belt around the older settlement, using marshy river lands, clearing away woods, and /or up on the mountainsides where the land was good but more difficult for their primitive agriculture. (Of course, farming was primitive everywhere 900 years ago.) The suffix -rud means simply rydde -clearing. These farms were considered more humble than the original because they were cleared and worked by a peasant farmer himself. While the original ones had been cleared by peasant workers, they were owned and managed by the "big farmer” -the Bonde.

Another type of name used at about the same time would have the suffix "-gaard or gard" and there are many of these in Hallingdal, and of course many other names also, in Hallingdal but we do see here some of the basic ones from the times of colonization and the reason for their names. With so many farms idle, with buildings rotting into oblivion from 1349 to the late 1400s and early 1500s, the farm name did not pass away. So when new people came and "took land" that had once been farmed, or if some local farmer with his sons was able to clear and occupy a former farm, the names of the farms remained the same, and are yet in the official records. Whoever occupied that type of farm would have to use that name as though it were his family name, as long as he lived on the particular piece. To illustrate, let me use my grandfather as an example: Asle Olson Gjeitrygg—Asle, son of Ole on the little farm behind the goat's back (narrow ridge.) When he came to America the name Gjeitrygg no longer pertained to his location, and was at best unpronounceable in English, so it was simply dropped and Asle Olson was his American name. Thousands of other immigrants did the same, for similar reasons.

From about 1650 to nearly 1900 there came a different type of arrangement for the farms. It could hardly be called "development" but more aptly "progress in reverse," yet we shall see how art and culture progressed at the very time farming was at its destitute worst! At this time, most usable farmland was already occupied, and with radical changes in climate from year to year had put an end to colonizing. That era was past, but a new one was taking shape. When one log cabin could no longer contain a man's family, some of the sons and their wives and children had to go somewhere else. But where? One method was devised whereby they set aside a small plot of ground on a corner of the family farm. There the son would build a tiny cabin and a stable, and there he would eke out a meager existence for his own family. Sometimes the parent-farm was divided into several smaller ones. Still another system was the "Husmannsplass" called by one writer "the symbol of material and spiritual poverty," yet it was often the only way out for the "surplus population"—those who could not possibly own any land. These men were permitted to clear a small plot out of the forest or from a wooded pasture belonging to a "big farmer." It was at least a permanent home and he could have a cow or sheep or a few goats of his own—but no "houseman's place" was ever enough to feed and clothe a family. Each "houseman" had to work out a certain number of days per year for the use of the land he occupied, and also for other farmers, to earn some kind of living.

One advantage in this system was that while living as "houseman" was next to slavery, he was not considered a vagrant, at least. Those who had no permanent home were put in prison for vagrancy. There could be quite a few men and women whose lot was to "serve time" simply because they had no home whatever. It is well to keep in mind that this system (or lack of it) was the result of a population explosion at a time when there were no known solutions to the problems. There were no industries, no businesses, no jobs. There was only the land it and could not supply enough for the demand. It began about the time of the Mayflower voyage from England to America so we know of similar situations of poverty, overcrowding, political unrest and religious persecutions also in other lands.

As before mentioned, we find a strong trend toward folk arts and culture especially in the 1700s, just when conditions seemed impossible. It's as if the HaRings suddenly realized that life could be more enjoyable if color and design were added to homes, clothing and humble household utensils. Exactly when, or how, or from whence the ideas and influence originated, this writer is in no position to say. But we can certainly assume that the Halling peasant costume, richly embroidered with brilliant colors on black, and with considerable variation from one village to the next must have been a great boost to morale.

At first it was only "big farmers" who could afford to hire artists todo the work but later some of the peasants themselves found it possible to try their own painting and carvings. Little, if any, decoration was wasted on the benches and table, but many house interiors were elaborately painted. Some of the

cabins had their entire "board and beam" ceilings completely covered with the bright, rhythmic swirls of rosemaling. Some of these can be seen in museums today, as testimony of a delightful art form from the past. The hand made wooden bowls, buckets and spoons were perhaps the first items that saw decoration, being ornamented with simple designs, burned into the wood with a sharp, hot instrument. It appears that this evolved into the painted designs called rosemaling. Strange that these arts were able to flourish when the general trend of Norway's economy was downhill. Perhaps economy has nothing to do with creativity, or more logically, there were some good years between the bad ones, which would

tend to inspire all people toward brighter things.

This much we do know: the very earliest settlers around Al and Hol had come over the mountains

air was so light and sun shone more hours in the day than down between the mountain walls of the valley farms. Yet, life was not easy up there-buildings were but primitive shelters and the hard work

required strong bodies and much determination.

down through generations of one family since the beginning. The location would be by a river, fjord,